Hundreds of newly-constructed 3.5-metre black drones stand in rows inside a secretive, mass production facility in Russia's Tatarstan region.
In footage broadcast by the Russian army's TV channel Zvezda in July, the factory's general director claimed it was the world's biggest maker of strike drones.
Nearby, teenagers were being trained at a college dedicated to studying drone manufacturing.
Young people were shown with their faces blurred out, studying computer screens, testing individual components, and assembling the weapons systems.
When they graduate at age 15, they will be primed for recruitment at the Alabuga factory to help build thousands of Geran-2 drones.
The Geran-2 — Russia's version of the Iranian Shahed kamikaze drone — is being used in record volumes to attack cities across Ukraine.
Western analysts and defence officials estimate that at current production rates, Russia could soon launch thousands of drones at its neighbour in a single night.
Drone production a national priority
Russia has made drone production a national priority, with teenage recruitment among the initiatives used to drastically ramp up the country's mass manufacturing capabilities.
Earlier this year, Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered output to be accelerated, saying that 1.5 million drones were produced in 2024 and it was "not enough".
Ukrainian intelligence has reported that the Kremlin can now produce up to 2,700 Shahed attack drones a month.
Early in the conflict, Moscow's air strikes averaged about 100 drones and missiles per wave, according to analysis by the US Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
Now more than 800 drones are being launched at a time, alongside a smaller number of cruise and ballistic missiles.
Christian Freuding, the head of the situation centre for Ukraine at Germany's Ministry of Defence, warned in July that Russia's bombardments could involve up to 2,000 Shahed-type drones by November.
The Institute for the Study of War, a Washington-based think tank, made the same assessment "should this current growth trend in drone usage continue".
[daily attack tally] Drone warfare expert Oleksandra Molloy, senior lecturer in aviation at UNSW, said it was possible there would soon be assaults with thousands of drones launched in one night.
"I'm sure that the Russian manufacturers are working day and night to make it happen," Dr Molloy told the ABC.
"Another challenging part is that these drones are continuously improving.
"Some new warhead types have increased from 50 kilograms to 90 kilograms, affecting how they may damage infrastructure or civilian areas in more lethal ways."
Civilians living in fear
It is difficult to spot drones coming because they are "often painted black to blend in with the night sky", Kyiv resident Andrii says.
Then suddenly the maddening buzz of loitering drones will be right above your home.
"Like a giant mosquito carrying 40 kilograms of explosives, and it's getting closer," the 29-year-old, who only provided his first name, said.
"It feels like a damn game of Russian roulette, slowly eating away at your nerves, making you jump at every sound."
For months, Ukraine's capital has faced nearly nightly assaults, with hundreds of Russian drones flying from all directions for up to seven hours straight.
"Over the past three months the attacks have become noticeably larger in scale, but worse — they've also become more frequent," Andrii told the ABC.
"Every night is becoming increasingly frightening."
Attacks have been escalating across the whole country, with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy accusing Russia of "intensifying terror against cities and communities".
Russia continues to deny that it targets civilians.
Over the weekend of September 7–8, Russia launched 805 drones and 13 missiles, targeting multiple regions in its largest aerial bombardment since the start of the full-scale conflict.
The Ukrainian Air Force reported that nine missiles and 54 strike drones struck 33 locations throughout the country and debris fell on eight locations.
[ukraine selected incidents] Spike in civilian deaths
The continued trend of bombing campaigns against Ukrainian cities had led to "alarmingly high" civilian deaths, the United Nations Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine said.
The increase in attacks has meant some regions have seen civilians killed and injured for the first time throughout the conflict.
[civilian death toll] A total 307 were killed in July, with the number of civilians and injured across Ukraine reaching a three-year monthly high that same month.
The UN confirmed at least 208 Ukrainian civilians were killed in August.
It said most deaths were occurring as a result of short-range drones and long-range missile strikes.
[death toll demographic] Ukraine has also been launching larger long-range drone attacks across Russia, hitting refineries, fuel depots and logistics hubs.
In July, a Ukrainian drone attack forced the temporary closure of all of Moscow's airports.
This week, Ukraine launched at least 361 drones at Russia, sparking a brief fire at the vast Kirishi oil refinery in the country's north-west, Russian officials said.
[russia death toll] Defending against 'the growing drone menace'
Ukraine is managing to intercept about 85 per cent of Russia's drone and missile barrages, according to a recent report by the Centre for Strategic and International Studies.
It uses a combination of Western air defences, jets, helicopters, electronic warfare, and ground crews operating heavy machine guns, or shoulder-launched surface-to-air missile systems.
Mykola Bielieskov, a research fellow at Ukraine's National Institute for Strategic Studies said the current approach was expensive and ground teams were increasingly unable to cope with the scale and sophistication of Russia's attacks.
"It is clear that the Ukrainian military needs to adopt new approaches to address the growing drone menace," he wrote in analysis for the Atlantic Council.
"The most cost-effective solution would be to produce interceptor drones capable of protecting Ukrainian cities."
Like the First-Person View drones that now dominate the battlefield, interceptor drones are flown by a pilot on the ground through a video feed from an onboard camera.
Local production has been underway, but Mr Zelenskyy said he wanted the country to be capable of churning out 1,000 a day.
Last week, the UK announced a new tech-sharing agreement with Ukraine to help manufacture thousands of interceptor drones.
The announcement came a day after 19 Russian drones entered NATO-member Poland's airspace.
A mix of systems and tactics
Russia's barrages are not just about volume.
Western analysts and Russian military bloggers have observed that Shahed drones are flying at higher altitudes, and include modifications that made them more jamming-resistant and able to carry powerful thermobaric warheads.
High-end cruise missiles and attack drones were being launched alongside decoy drones.
The 'Gerbera' decoy drones are known to be made of materials such as plywood and foam, and are used as a cheap way to saturate Ukraine's air defences.
The suspected Russian drone incursion in Poland was conducted at least in part with Gerbera drones, according to a Polish army official.
[peace talks timeline] This year, the war in Ukraine has has been marked by a US-led push for peace.
Analysts have found that many of the recent large-scale attacks have coincided with ceasefire negotiations.
Russia's aerial attacks intensified following bilateral talks in May, and more than 700 drones were launched hours after a call between US President Donald Trump and Mr Putin in July.
Last month saw another flurry of diplomacy aimed at stopping the war, with Mr Trump meeting Mr Putin at a summit in Alaska.
He then held talks with Mr Zelenskyy and European leaders at the White House.
But Ukraine has since faced its largest-ever Russian air assault, with the drone incursion into Poland following soon after.
On Saturday, Romania became the latest NATO member state to report that a Russian drone had breached its airspace.
NATO has announced plans to beef up the defence of its eastern European flank, using a range of assets integrating air and ground bases.
Doubts remain, however, over NATO and Europe's ability to withstand any large-scale Russian air assault and the growing drone threat.
Dr Molloy said the situation was "getting real" and NATO countries needed to find ways to better respond to Russia's provocations.
And that would include continuing to work with Ukraine to develop stronger defence systems and counter-drone measures.
"NATO countries are understanding they need to prepare for different scenarios," she said.
"We really need effective, efficient systems to protect at different levels."
ABC/Wires
