Tongan citizen Lionel Funaki fears a United States policy of "collective punishment" has ended his dream of studying in Hawaii.
He's one of many in the Pacific Island nation grappling with the Trump administration's new travel restrictions affecting Tongan nationals.
Under new immigration restrictions that came into effect on January 1, the US has suspended issuing visas to Tongans for short-term visits, tourism and business purposes.
Only two weeks after the new rules came into effect, the US State Department, in a separate measure, also said it would for people from 75 countries including Fiji.
Mr Funaki, who is based in Tonga and used to study in Hawaii at Brigham Young University, said he was saddened by the new measures imposed on Tongan nationals.
"I was looking forward to continuing my educational journey, but unfortunately, that now looms in limbo," he said.
"I understand that in the name of national security and the interests of the United States, certain measures have to be made, but collective punishment seems to be a bit extreme."
Tonga was named alongside 20 other countries in a round of full and partial travel restrictions imposed in December by the Trump administration, as it continued its sweeping immigration crackdown.
The White House said it included Tonga on the list due to the high number of its nationals — about 14 per cent — who overstayed their visas.
It also said Tonga had unreliable civil documents and criminal records, lacked birth registration systems, and that its government had refused to share data and repatriate deportees.
"I would tell everyone that America is a land of hospitality, we love to have visitors — but they have to come here legally," US Homeland Security Secretary Kristi Noem said in a November press conference.
"When they're done visiting, then they need to go home."
In a December statement, US President Donald Trump said countries listed for the new travel restrictions had failed to address concerns raised by his administration about their screening, vetting, and the information they provided about their citizens.
"Such countries warrant continued or new travel restrictions," he said.
Restrictions stir frustrations in Tonga
The US travel restrictions have caused frustrations in Tonga, which has a large diaspora of citizens living in states such as Utah, Hawaii and San Francisco.
About 78,000 people of Tongan heritage were living in the US during the most recent census in 2020, and many regularly travel between the countries.
The diaspora in the US is an important part of Tonga's economy, having long been the largest source of remittances to the Pacific nation.
The US has long been viewed as a "land of opportunity" for Tongans seeking education, wealth and a higher standard of living overseas.
"Since the 60s, most of the immigration was the result of Tongans coming through the Church of Jesus Christ [of] Latter-Day Saints," said Tongan-born American citizen Semisi Fa'asolo, who lives in Phoenix, Arizona.
"It's a pity that Tonga is experiencing this … there's a possibility that Trump maybe cancels [the ban] so Tonga needs to step up its diplomacy."
Experts that travel bans could pose problems for families hoping to visit US-based relatives on religious or cultural occasions, or to provide support.
The ABC approached newly-elected Tongan Prime Minister Lord Fakafanua, but he declined to comment.
His predecessor, 'Aisake Eke, was critical of travel restrictions while in office and signalled his government's displeasure at a proposed ban last year, telling local media it was "unacceptable".
It was a turn in relations nearly three years after Washington in Tonga's capital, Nuku'alofa — a move meant to symbolise that America was re-engaging with the Pacific.
Critics link ban to ICE arrests
Many in the US have also condemned the move, accusing the Trump administration of racism and of being motivated by anti-immigrant sentiment.
"We need not enact these draconian restrictions," Hawaii state senator Jarrett Keohokalole said.
He said visa overstay rates among Tongans living in the US could instead be solved through diplomacy.
Senator Keohokalole said the new restrictions went overboard and came off the back of a Supreme Court ruling interpreted as empowering US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) to racially profile suspects.
"They're allowed to take into account a person's skin colour … and speech in their investigations," he said.
"Basically what the law now allows is for [ICE] agents to stop, investigate, detain, and potentially arrest anyone that they think resembles a Tongan national."
The ABC approached the US government for comment.
Other critics have linked the US travel restrictions to the Trump administration's controversial ramp-up in arrests of suspected illegal immigrants.
National Tongan American Society executive director Fahina Pasi said Mr Trump's policies — enforced by ICE on streets around the US — had caused anxiety among the Tongan diaspora.
"Not too many people are travelling [overseas] for fear that something might happen … that immigration [officials] might not let them back in for whatever reasons they have," Ms Pasi said.
"[Mr Trump is] very racist and is always trying to put people of colour down."
Ms Pasi said her organisation had been actively advising the community about their legal rights and protections against arrest by ICE personnel.
"What we tell our people is, 'If you see some strange people coming to your door that look kind of fishy, don't open your door,'" she said.
"Slide this red card under and the red card basically says, 'Contact our attorney.'"
