Japanese tour guide Sai Endo was still learning to speak English when he spent a year of high school in the small coastal town of Victor Harbor in South Australia six years ago.
"Despite that, the local people warmly welcomed me, which left a deep impression," he said.
"After returning to Japan, I wanted to become the person who welcomes others, just as I had been welcomed."
He was inspired to become an independent tour guide in Tokyo — a job that now supports him through his university studies.
"What I enjoy most is being part of meaningful moments where people from different cultures come together with mutual respect and curiosity to experience something new," Mr Endo said.
Travel to Japan has boomed since the COVID-19 pandemic, with international visitors surging to a record 42 million in 2025, including 1 million Australians.
[Graph visitor numbers]Tourism has become Japan's second largest export, after cars.
A diplomatic spat with China has led to a decline in Chinese visitors to its East Asian neighbour — dropping more than 60 per cent year on year in January, according to the Japan National Tourism Organization.
Still, the Japanese government hopes to grow its tourism sector further with a target of 60 million visitors by 2030.
[Graph sources of visitors]Residents at famous attractions have continued to complain of "overtourism", prompting headline-making responses including the in Fujiyoshida.
Officials in the town of Fujikawaguchiko in 2024 tried to erect a black screen in the hope it would stop tourists from crowding to take pictures of Mount Fuji.
Experts and travel operators say the overwhelming tourism pressure is concentrated in a small number of high-profile destinations, including Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka and areas around Mount Fuji.
"This is not a nationwide phenomenon but one that is highly concentrated in particular places," said Hayato Nagai, an associate professor at Ritsumeikan University Business School.
While those areas grapple with large tourist numbers, many regional and rural areas would like more visitors, said Tim Oakes, managing director for tourism operator Inside Travel Australia.
"This imbalance — too many people in too few places — is at the heart of the issue, and it mirrors global travel patterns," he said.
The Kyoto crush
For parts of Japan's former imperial capital Kyoto, the pressure is acute.
The city is yet to release its 2025 tourism numbers, but it expects they will break its previous annual record of 56.8 million set in 2015.
Kyoto, a city of 1.4 million, famous for its historic temples and shrines, is also a major university hub and hosts companies including Nintendo and Kyocera.
"Tourism takes place within a complex urban environment where residents, students, businesses and religious institutions coexist," Dr Nagai said.
Unlike Tokyo, which is one of the world's largest megacities, Kyoto wasn't built to handle surging crowds of people and lacks an extensive subway network.
"The reason Kyoto is particularly susceptible to such problems lies in its urban layout, which is based on city planning from over 1,000 years ago," said Takuya Horie, chief marketing officer at Kyoto City Tourism Association.
"Factors such as narrow streets, development that proceeded without separating residential and tourist zones, and strict regulations like building height restrictions all compound the issue."
One of the most visible signs of congestion has been on Kyoto's public transport, where residents have found themselves unable to get on buses packed with tourists and their suitcases.
"During peak periods such as the cherry blossom season in spring and the autumn foliage season, the influx of tourists into major districts … during the day has caused significant disruptions," a Kyoto City spokesperson said.
"This concentration of visitors has resulted in localised overcrowding and behavioural issues, including pedestrians obstructing roadways, littering, and unauthorised street smoking."
In some cases, tourists have trespassed into private residences, according to the Kyoto City Tourism Association.
But the spread of tourists had been uneven, and in the summer and winter off-seasons, many shops struggled to attract customers just one street away from bustling tourist corridors, Mr Horie said.
How is Japan responding?
Experts and operators say overtourism isn't just a matter of overcrowding, but also change to local areas in ways that disadvantage residents.
"The biggest impact of overtourism is the loss of a region's original value and character," Mr Endo said.
"When too many tourists concentrate in one area, the focus of the town gradually shifts from daily life to tourism.
"Businesses naturally begin prioritising tourists over local residents because it becomes more profitable. As a result, everyday convenience for residents decreases, and the unique local identity can slowly disappear."
Kyoto residents have reported significant concerns about disruptions from tourism, but these have not prompted a simple "anti-tourism" backlash, experts say.
A recent Kyoto City survey found 70 per cent of residents still agreed tourism played an important role for the city, Dr Nagai said.
"This indicates that many residents recognise its economic and cultural value," he said.
"In terms of public opinion, the picture is nuanced rather than simply anti-tourism."
In response, Kyoto is trying to relieve congestion by publishing crowd forecast data and showing crowds on live webcams at major tourist attractions, introducing tourist express buses and promoting luggage storage and delivery services.
Etiquette "educators" warn tourists against blocking busy thoroughfares or eating while walking — which is considered impolite in Japan.
New awareness campaigns collaborating with famous manga series encourage tourists not to litter or block sidewalks to take photos.
Kyoto will also levy more from travellers making high-end stays under changes to its accommodation tax — a measure aiming to encourage longer visits and create revenue for local infrastructure.
But Sendai-based tour guide Mai Honda says Japan could manage overtourism with other measures that have helped in Spain, including mandatory pre-booking at popular attractions.
"Limiting numbers can improve visitors' satisfaction and also if tickets are not available, it can encourage people to choose other regions," she said.
Yusuke Ishiguro, an associate professor at Hokkaido University's graduate school of international media, communication, and tourism studies, is working in Barcelona and says it is technically advanced in managing tourist flows.
"Adopting this model of controlling visitor flow and experience through technology, rather than just accepting raw numbers, is crucial," he said.
Professor Ishiguro is sceptical about the goal of 60 million tourists, saying the industry had matured to a stage where Japan's government shouldn't impose national targets "top down" but base them on the capacity of local municipalities.
Still, Kyoto's tourism association said with the right measures, it might be able to accept even more visitors.
"In 1970, Kyoto had about half the number of tourists it has today, but overtourism was already considered a problem then," Mr Horie said.
"Infrastructure improvements over the past 50 years have made it possible to accommodate twice as many tourists."
How can tourists help?
Pricing and regulation can ease pressure, but they don't fully address underlying drivers of overtourism, says Mr Oakes, from Inside Travel.
One problem is marketing that focuses on a handful of icons, and social media that amplifies them.
"That's where the travel industry has a responsibility to act," he said.
"Overtourism is a complex issue, and it requires both local government authorities and travel providers to work together on long-term solutions that will create lasting change."
Authorities in some of Japan's most popular cities are encouraging tourists to visit outside peak seasons, join social media communities where local expats post about experiences not advertised in heavily curated influencer content, and read about local etiquette and culture before arriving.
Mr Oakes said other simple actions, like spending longer in fewer places, and including regional destinations alongside major cities, could make a difference.
"Remember the travel is about the experience, not the social media post," he said.
Back in Tokyo, Mr Endo said tourists were increasingly prioritising deeper and richer experiences over typical sightseeing.
He said responsibility to address the impacts of overtourism did not lie only with visitors.
"Those of us who welcome tourists also need to actively think about how to protect local value while hosting guests sustainably."
